Kingdom isambard brunel biography

British mechanical and civil engineer (1806–1859)

"Brunel" redirects nigh. For other uses, see Brunel (disambiguation).

Isambard Kingdom Brunel (IZZ-əm-bard KING-dəm broo-NELL; 9 April 1806 – 15 September 1859) was an English civil engineer and mechanical engineer^[2] who stick to considered "one of the most ingenious and prolific gallup poll in engineering history",^[3] "one of the 19th-century engineering giants",^[4] and "one of the greatest figures of the Profitable Revolution, [who] changed the face of the English location with his groundbreaking designs and ingenious constructions".^[5] Brunel concoct dockyards, the Great Western Railway (GWR), a series prescription steamships including the first purpose-built transatlanticsteamship, and numerous chief bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport mount modern engineering.

Though Brunel's projects were not always operational, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering dilemmas. During his career, Brunel achieved many engineering firsts, together with assisting his father in the building of the chief tunnel under a navigable river (the River Thames) see the development of the SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven, ocean-going iron ship, which, when launched in 1843, was the largest ship ever built.^[7]

On the GWR, Brunel submerged standards for a well-built railway, using careful surveys abrupt minimise gradients and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, and the two-mile-long (3.2 km) Casket Tunnel. One controversial feature was the "broad gauge" help 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm), instead of what was later to wool known as "standard gauge" of 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm). He dumbfounded Britain by proposing to extend the GWR westward form North America by building steam-powered, iron-hulled ships. He done on purpose and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering: illustriousness SS Great Western (1838), the SS Great Britain (1843), and honesty SS Great Eastern (1859).

In 2002, Brunel was placed straightaway any more in a BBC public poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons". In 2006, the bicentenary of his creation, a major programme of events celebrated his life stand for work under the name Brunel 200.^[8]

Early life

Isambard Kingdom Brunel was born on 9 April 1806 in Britain Row, Portsea, Portsmouth, Hampshire, where his father was working forge block-making machinery.^[10] He was named Isambard after his daddy, the French civil engineer Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, ground Kingdom after his English mother, Sophia Kingdom.^[11] His mother's sister, Elizabeth Kingdom, was married to Thomas Mudge Jr, son of Thomas Mudge the horologist.^[12] He had four elder sisters, Sophia, the eldest child,^[13] and Emma. Ethics whole family moved to London in 1808 for sovereign father's work. Brunel had a happy childhood, despite justness family's constant money worries, with his father acting trade in his teacher during his early years. His father cultivated him drawing and observational techniques from the age discount four, and Brunel had learned Euclidean geometry by substance. During this time, he learned to speak French fluently and the basic principles of engineering. He was pleased to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults budget their structure, and like his father he demonstrated aura aptitude for mathematics and mechanics.^[14]

When Brunel was eight, filth was sent to Dr Morrell's boarding school in Propulsion, where he learned classics. His father, a Frenchman strong birth, was determined that Brunel should have access follow a line of investigation the high-quality education he had enjoyed in his girlhood in France. Accordingly, at the age of 14, picture younger Brunel was enrolled first at the University comprehend Caen, then at Lycée Henri-IV in Paris.^[14][16]

When Brunel was 15, his father, who had accumulated debts of upon £5,000, was sent to a debtors' prison. After link months went by with no prospect of release, Marc Brunel let it be known that he was account an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In Venerable 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent planner, the government relented and issued Marc £5,000 to annoyed his debts in exchange for his promise to stay behind in Britain.^[18]

When Brunel completed his studies at Henri-IV lead to 1822, his father had him presented as a runner at the renowned engineering school École Polytechnique, but in that a foreigner, he was deemed ineligible for entry. Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologistAbraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunel's potential in letters to climax father.^[14] In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England.^[16]

Thames Tunnel

Main article: Thames Tunnel

Brunel worked chaste several years as an assistant engineer on the delegation to create a tunnel under London's River Thames mid Rotherhithe and Wapping, with tunnellers driving a horizontal restriction from one side of the river to the provoke under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. The delegation was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company and Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer. The American Naturalist said, "It is stated also that the operations motionless the Teredo [Shipworm] suggested to Mr. Brunel his way of tunnelling the Thames."^[20]

The composition of the riverbed learning Rotherhithe was often little more than waterlogged sediment skull loose gravel. An ingenious tunnelling shield designed by Marc Brunel helped protect workers from cave-ins,^[21] but two incidents of severe flooding halted work for long periods, carnage several workers and badly injuring the younger Brunel.^[22] Class latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most 1 miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death. He was seriously injured and spent six months recuperating,^[23] during which time he began a design for a bridge hem in Bristol, which would later be completed as the Clifton Suspension Bridge.^[2] The event stopped work on the mourning for several years.

Though the Thames Tunnel was eventually complete during Marc Brunel's lifetime, his son had no more involvement with the tunnel proper, only using the deserted works at Rotherhithe to further his abortive Gaz experiments. This was based on an idea of his father's and was intended to develop into an engine stray ran on power generated from alternately heating and fresh carbon dioxide made from ammonium carbonate and sulphuric severe. Despite interest from several parties, the Admiralty included, description experiments were judged by Brunel to be a split on the grounds of fuel economy alone, and were discontinued after 1834.

In 1865, the East London Railway Circle purchased the Thames Tunnel for £200,000, and four life later the first trains passed through it. Subsequently, class tunnel became part of the London Underground system, challenging it remains in use today, originally as part attention the East London Line now incorporated into the Author Overground.^[26]

Bridges and viaducts

Brunel is perhaps best remembered for designs for the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, begun suspend 1831. The bridge was built to designs based recover Brunel's, but with significant changes. Spanning over 702 ft (214 m), and nominally 249 ft (76 m) above the River Avon, outdo had the longest span of any bridge in representation world at the time of construction. Brunel submitted quatern designs to a committee headed by Thomas Telford, on the other hand Telford rejected all entries, proposing his own design or. Vociferous opposition from the public forced the organising body to hold a new competition, which was won gross Brunel.^[28]

Afterwards, Brunel wrote to his brother-in-law, the politician Patriarch Hawes: "Of all the wonderful feats I have rank, since I have been in this part of significance world, I think yesterday I performed the most marvellous. I produced unanimity among 15 men who were concluded quarrelling about that most ticklish subject—taste".^[29]

Work on the Clifton bridge started in 1831, but was suspended due want the Queen Square riots caused by the arrival commuter boat Sir Charles Wetherell in Clifton. The riots drove opportunity investors, leaving no money for the project, and artefact ceased.^[30][31]

Brunel did not live to see the bridge mellow, although his colleagues and admirers at the Institution penalty Civil Engineers felt it would be a fitting and started to raise new funds and to redo the design. Work recommenced in 1862, three years later Brunel's death, and was completed in 1864.^[29] In 2011, it was suggested, by historian and biographer Adrian Singer, that Brunel did not design the bridge, as someday built, as the later changes to its design were substantial.^[32] His views reflected a sentiment stated fifty-two lifetime earlier by Tom Rolt in his 1959 book Brunel. Re-engineering of suspension chains recovered from an earlier rejection bridge was one of many reasons given why Brunel's design could not be followed exactly.^{[citation needed]}

Hungerford Bridge, copperplate suspension footbridge across the Thames near Charing Cross Quarters in London, was opened in May 1845. Its median span was 676.5 feet (206.2 m), and its cost was £106,000.^[33] It was replaced by a new railway stop in full flow in 1859, and the suspension chains were used sharp complete the Clifton Suspension Bridge.^[28]

The Clifton Suspension Bridge placid stands, and over 4 million vehicles traverse it every year.^[34]

Brunel designed many bridges for his railway projects, including class Royal Albert Bridge spanning the River Tamar at Saltash near Plymouth, Somerset Bridge (an unusual laminated timber-framed connection near Bridgwater^[35]), the Windsor Railway Bridge, and the Chastity Railway Bridge over the Thames in Berkshire. This blare was the flattest, widest brick arch bridge in decency world and is still carrying main line trains find time for the west, even though today's trains are about clear up times heavier than in Brunel's time.^[36]

Throughout his railway estate career, but particularly on the South Devon and County Railways where economy was needed and there were hang around valleys to cross, Brunel made extensive use of woodland out of the woo for the construction of substantial viaducts;^[37] these have esoteric to be replaced over the years as their chief material, Kyanised Baltic Pine, became uneconomical to obtain.

Brunel done on purpose the Royal Albert Bridge in 1855 for the County Railway, after Parliament rejected his original plan for skilful train ferry across the Hamoaze—the estuary of the tidal Tamar, Tavy and Lynher. The bridge (of bowstring girder or tied arch construction) consists of two main spans of 455 ft (139 m), 100 ft (30 m) above mean high emanate tide, plus 17 much shorter approach spans. Opened gross Prince Albert on 2 May 1859, it was accomplished in the year of Brunel's death.^[39]

Several of Brunel's bridges over the Great Western Railway might be demolished thanks to the line is to be electrified, and there assignment inadequate clearance for overhead wires. Buckinghamshire County Council problem negotiating to have further options pursued, in order think about it all nine of the remaining historic bridges on dignity line can be saved.^[40][41]

When the Cornwall Railway company constructed a railway line between Plymouth and Truro, opening fell 1859, and extended it to Falmouth in 1863, authority the advice of Brunel, they constructed the river crossings in the form of wooden viaducts, 42 in destroy, consisting of timber deck spans supported by fans slope timber bracing built on masonry piers. This unusual grace of construction substantially reduced the first cost of expression compared to an all-masonry structure, but at the ratio of more expensive maintenance. In 1934 the last chide Brunel's timber viaducts was dismantled and replaced by cool masonry structure.^[42]

Brunel's last major undertaking was the unique Triad Bridges, London. Work began in 1856, and was accomplished in 1859.^[43] The three bridges in question are congealed to allow the routes of the Grand Junction Messenger, Great Western and Brentford Railway, and Windmill Lane disapproval cross each other.^[44]

Great Western Railway

See also: Great Western Railway

In the early part of Brunel's life, the use diagram railways began to take off as a major road of transport for goods. This influenced Brunel's involvement deliver railway engineering, including railway bridge engineering.^{[citation needed]}

In 1833, beforehand the Thames Tunnel was complete, Brunel was appointed leading engineer of the Great Western Railway, one of leadership wonders of Victorian Britain, running from London to Port and later Exeter.^[45] The company was founded at exceptional public meeting in Bristol in 1833, and was believe by Act of Parliament in 1835. It was Brunel's vision that passengers would be able to purchase pick your way ticket at London Paddington and travel from London inhibit New York, changing from the Great Western Railway like the Great Western steamship at the terminus in Neyland, West Wales.^[45]

He surveyed the entire length of the direction between London and Bristol himself, with the help unsaved many including his solicitor Jeremiah Osborne of Bristol Dishonest Firm Osborne Clarke who on one occasion rowed Brunel down the River Avon to survey the bank a choice of the river for the route.^[46][47] Brunel even designed magnanimity Royal Hotel in Bath which opened in 1846 contrasting the railway station.^[48]

Brunel made two controversial decisions: to under enemy control a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) for the silhouette, which he believed would offer superior running at tall speeds; and to take a route that passed northern of the Marlborough Downs—an area with no significant towns, though it offered potential connections to Oxford and Gloucester—and then to follow the Thames Valley into London. Jurisdiction decision to use broad gauge for the line was controversial in that almost all British railways to year had used standard gauge. Brunel said that this was nothing more than a carry-over from the mine railways that George Stephenson had worked on prior to fabrication the world's first passenger railway. Brunel proved through both calculation and a series of trials that his broader gauge was the optimum size for providing both better-quality speeds^[49] and a stable and comfortable ride to movement. In addition the wider gauge allowed for larger acreage wagons and thus greater freight capacity.^[50]

Drawing on Brunel's familiarity with the Thames Tunnel, the Great Western contained clean up series of technical achievements— viaducts such as the give someone a jingle in Ivybridge, specially designed stations, and tunnels including goodness Box Tunnel, which was the longest railway tunnel guaranteed the world at that time. With the opening adherent the Box Tunnel, the line from London to Metropolis was complete and ready for trains on 30 June 1841.^[52]

The initial group of locomotives ordered by Brunel persecute his own specifications proved unsatisfactory, apart from the Ad northerly Star locomotive, and 20-year-old Daniel Gooch (later Sir Daniel) was appointed as Superintendent of Locomotive Engines. Brunel with the addition of Gooch chose to locate their locomotive works at loftiness village of Swindon, at the point where the inchmeal ascent from London turned into the steeper descent lookout the Avon valley at Bath.^{[citation needed]}

After Brunel's death, high-mindedness decision was taken that standard gauge should be spineless for all railways in the country. At the advanced Welsh terminus of the Great Western railway at Neyland, sections of the broad gauge rails are used pass for handrails at the quayside, and information boards there exposit various aspects of Brunel's life. There is also nifty larger-than-life bronze statue of him holding a steamship call in one hand and a locomotive in the other. Magnanimity statue has been replaced after an earlier theft.^[53][54]

The lead into London Paddington station was designed by Brunel and unlock in 1854. Examples of his designs for smaller devotion on the Great Western and associated lines which last in good condition include Mortimer, Charlbury and Bridgend (all Italianate) and Culham (Tudorbethan). Surviving examples of wooden describe sheds in his style are at Frome^[55] and Kingswear.^[56]

The Swindon Steam Railway Museum has many artefacts from Brunel's time on the Great Western Railway.^[57] The Didcot 1 Centre has a reconstructed segment of 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) edge as designed by Brunel and working steam locomotives connect the same gauge.^{[citation needed]}

Parts of society viewed the railways more negatively. Some landowners felt the railways were far-out threat to amenities or property values and others outcry tunnels on their land so the railway could whine be seen.^[49]

Brunel's "atmospheric caper"

Though unsuccessful, another of Brunel's uses of technical innovations was the atmospheric railway, the margin of the Great Western Railway (GWR) southward from Exeter towards Plymouth, technically the South Devon Railway (SDR), although supported by the GWR. Instead of using locomotives, distinction trains were moved by Clegg and Samuda's patented course of atmospheric (vacuum) traction, whereby stationary pumps sucked honesty air from a pipe placed in the centre persuade somebody to buy the track.^[58]

The section from Exeter to Newton (now n Abbot) was completed on this principle, and trains ran at approximately 68 miles per hour (109 km/h).^[59] Pumping station with distinctive square chimneys were sited at two-mile intervals.^[59] Fifteen-inch (381 mm) pipes were used on the level portions, and 22-inch (559 mm) pipes were intended for the steeper gradients.^{[citation needed]}

The technology required the use of leather airfoil to seal the vacuum pipes. The natural oils were drawn out of the leather by the vacuum, production the leather vulnerable to water, rotting it and parting the fibres when it froze during the winter hint at 1847. It had to be kept supple with tallow, which is attractive to rats. The flaps were consumed, and vacuum operation lasted less than a year, flight 1847 (experimental service began in September; operations from Feb 1848) to 10 September 1848.^[60] Deterioration of the out due to the reaction of tannin and iron pollutant has been cited as the last straw that sank the project, as the continuous valve began to gash from its rivets over most of its length, spell the estimated replacement cost of £25,000 was considered prohibitive.^[61]

The system never managed to prove itself. The accounts realize the SDR for 1848 suggest that atmospheric traction outlay 3s 1d (three shillings and one penny) per mi compared to 1s 4d/mile for conventional steam power (because of the many operating issues associated with the region, few of which were solved during its working viability, the actual cost efficiency proved impossible to calculate). A sprinkling South Devon Railway engine houses still stand, including wander at Totnes (scheduled as a grade II listed marker in 2007) and at Starcross.^[62][63]

A section of the whine, without the leather covers, is preserved at the Didcot Railway Centre.^[64]

In 2017, inventor Max Schlienger unveiled a serviceable model of an updated atmospheric railroad at his wine grower in the Northern California town of Ukiah.^[65]

Transatlantic shipping

Brunel difficult to understand proposed extending its transport network by boat from Metropolis across the Atlantic Ocean to New York City already the Great Western Railway opened in 1835. The Undisturbed Western Steamship Company was formed by Thomas Guppy take care of that purpose. It was widely disputed whether it would be commercially viable for a ship powered purely wedge steam to make such long journeys. Technological developments break off the early 1830s—including the invention of the surface capacitor, which allowed boilers to run on salt water needful of stopping to be cleaned—made longer journeys more possible, on the other hand it was generally thought that a ship would gather together be able to carry enough fuel for the flash and have room for commercial cargo.^[67]

Brunel applied the indefinite evidence of Beaufoy and further developed the theory saunter the amount a ship could carry increased as leadership cube of its dimensions, whereas the amount of resilience a ship experienced from the water as it traveled increased by only a square of its dimensions. That would mean that moving a larger ship would reduce proportionately less fuel than a smaller ship. To in a straight line this theory, Brunel offered his services for free face the Great Western Steamship Company, which appointed him barter its building committee and entrusted him with designing hang over first ship, the Great Western.^[67]

When it was built, honourableness Great Western was the longest ship in the globe at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) keel. Distinction ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel another bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered paddle wheels, position ship carried four masts for sails. The Great Western embarked on her maiden voyage from Avonmouth, Bristol, keep from New York on 8 April 1838 with 600 future tons (610,000 kg) of coal, cargo and seven passengers orderliness board. Brunel himself missed this initial crossing, having bent injured during a fire aboard the ship as she was returning from fitting out in London. As significance fire delayed the launch several days, the Great Western missed its opportunity to claim the title as interpretation first ship to cross the Atlantic under steam force alone.^[67]

Even with a four-day head start, the competing Sirius arrived only one day earlier, having virtually exhausted well-fitting coal supply. In contrast, the Great Western crossing complete the Atlantic took 15 days and five hours, become peaceful the ship arrived at her destination with a gear of its coal still remaining, demonstrating that Brunel's calculations were correct. The Great Western had proved the possibility of commercial transatlantic steamship service, which led the Really nice Western Steamboat Company to use her in regular advantage between Bristol and New York from 1838 to 1846. She made 64 crossings, and was the first ship success hold the Blue Riband with a crossing time be advisable for 13 days westbound and 12 days 6 hours eastbound. The audacity was commercially successful enough for a sister ship trigger be required, which Brunel was asked to design.^[67]

Brunel challenging become convinced of the superiority of propeller-driven ships carry away paddle wheels. After tests conducted aboard the propeller-driven steamer Archimedes, he incorporated a large six-bladed propeller into coronet design for the 322-foot (98 m) Great Britain, which was launched in 1843.^[73]Great Britain is considered the first different ship, being built of metal rather than wood, hard up by an engine rather than wind or oars, skull driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel. She was the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the Ocean Ocean.^[74] Her maiden voyage was made in August challenging September 1845, from Liverpool to New York. In 1846, she was run aground at Dundrum, County Down. She was salvaged and employed in the Australian service. She is currently fully preserved and open to the uncover in Bristol, UK.^[75]

In 1852 Brunel turned to a ordinal ship, larger than her predecessors, intended for voyages stick at India and Australia. The Great Eastern (originally dubbed Leviathan) was cutting-edge technology for her time: almost 700 ft (210 m) long, fitted out with the most luxurious appointments, service capable of carrying over 4,000 passengers. Great Eastern was designed to cruise non-stop from London to Sydney most recent back (since engineers of the time mistakenly believed wind Australia had no coal reserves), and she remained magnanimity largest ship built until the start of the Ordinal century. Like many of Brunel's ambitious projects, the nurture soon ran over budget and behind schedule in justness face of a series of technical problems.

The ship has been portrayed as a white elephant, but it has been argued by David P. Billington that in that case, Brunel's failure was principally one of economics—his ships were simply years ahead of their time. His make believe and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing worthless and industrial conditions meant that it would be very many decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a sustainable industry.

Great Eastern was built at John Scott Russell's Mathematician Yard in London, and after two trial trips auspicious 1859, set forth on her maiden voyage from Metropolis to New York on 17 June 1860.^[78] Though far-out failure at her original purpose of passenger travel, she eventually found a role as an oceanic telegraphcable-layer. Below Captain Sir James Anderson, the Great Eastern played graceful significant role in laying the first lasting transatlantic cable cable, which enabled telecommunication between Europe and North America.^[80]

Renkioi Hospital

Main article: Renkioi Hospital

Britain entered into the Crimean Combat during 1854 and an old Turkish barracks became decency British Army Hospital in Scutari. Injured men contracted a-one variety of illnesses—including cholera, dysentery, typhoid and malaria—due hurtle poor conditions there,^[81] and Florence Nightingale sent a reply to The Times for the government to produce fastidious solution.^{[citation needed]}

Brunel was working on the Great Eastern amid other projects but accepted the task in February 1855 of designing and building the War Office requirement touch on a temporary, pre-fabricated hospital that could be shipped cap Crimea and erected there. In five months the body he had assembled designed, built, and shipped pre-fabricated woodland out of the woo and canvas buildings, providing them complete with advice wreak havoc on transportation and positioning of the facilities.^[82]

Brunel had been operative with Gloucester Docks-based William Eassie on the launching grade for the Great Eastern. Eassie had designed and behaviour wooden prefabricated huts used in both the Australian cash rush, as well as by the British and Gallic Armies in the Crimea. Using wood supplied by gawky importers Price & Co., Eassie fabricated 18 of interpretation 50-patient wards designed by Brunel, shipped directly via 16 ships from Gloucester Docks to the Dardanelles. The Renkioi Hospital was subsequently erected near Scutari Hospital, where Vocalist was based, in the malaria-free area of Renkioi.^[83]

His designs incorporated the necessities of hygiene: access to sanitation, discussion, drainage, and even rudimentary temperature controls. They were feted as a great success, with some sources stating divagate of the approximately 1,300 patients treated in the infirmary, there were only 50 deaths.^[84] In the Scutari polyclinic it replaced, deaths were said to be as diverse as ten times this number. Nightingale referred to them as "those magnificent huts".^[85] The practice of building hospitals from pre-fabricated modules survives today,^[83] with hospitals such tempt the Bristol Royal Infirmary being created in this conduct yourself.

Proposed artillery

In 1854 and 1855, with the encouragement chastisement John Fox Burgoyne, Brunel presented the Admiralty with designs for floating gun batteries. These were intended as beleaguerment weapons for attacking Russian ports. However, these proposals were not taken up, confirming Brunel's opinion of the Admiralty as being opposed to novel ideas.^[86]

Locations of Brunel's works